Hallmarks of Cancer: The Next Generation
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Hallmarks of Cancer: The Next Generation
Cell, Volume 144, Issue 5,
Pages 646-674,
Publication Date 4 March 2011
Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2011.02.013
Douglas Hanahan
Robert A. Weinberg
The Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, EPFL, Lausanne CH-1015, Switzerland
The Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, UCSF, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Ludwig/MIT Center for Molecular Oncology, and MIT Department of Biology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
Corresponding author
Summary
The hallmarks of cancer comprise six biological capabilities acquired during the multistep development of human tumors. The hallmarks constitute an organizing principle for rationalizing the complexities of neoplastic disease. They include sustaining proliferative signaling, evading growth suppressors, resisting cell death, enabling replicative immortality, inducing angiogenesis, and activating invasion and metastasis. Underlying these hallmarks are genome instability, which generates the genetic diversity that expedites their acquisition, and inflammation, which fosters multiple hallmark functions. Conceptual progress in the last decade has added two emerging hallmarks of potential generality to this list—reprogramming of energy metabolism and evading immune destruction. In addition to cancer cells, tumors exhibit another dimension of complexity: they contain a repertoire of recruited, ostensibly normal cells that contribute to the acquisition of hallmark traits by creating the “tumor microenvironment.” Recognition of the widespread applicability of these concepts will increasingly affect the development of new means to treat human cancer.
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